The practice was based on the idea that certain functions were located in specific areas of the brain. Phrenologists suggested that the brain was composed of muscles that, like other areas of the body, grew bigger when they were used more often. As a result, phrenologists proposed, bumps were produced in those areas on the skull. This article discusses the history of phrenology and how it was used. It also explores the impact of this pseudoscience, including its perpetuation of scientific racism.
History of Phrenology
Phrenology originated in the late 1700s in Vienna as German physician Franz Joseph Gall’s theory of “organology.” It was later popularized as phrenology by Gall’s assistant, a German physician named Johann Gaspar Spurzheim. Gall noticed that the cerebral cortex of humans was much larger than that of animals, which he believed was what made humans intellectually superior. Eventually, he became convinced that the physical features of the cortex could also be seen in the shape and size of the skull. After examining the heads of young pickpockets, Gall found that many had bumps on their skull just above their ears. He suggested that these bumps were associated with “acquisitiveness,” or a tendency to steal, hoard, or exhibit greed. In his book on phrenology, Gall suggested that moral and intellectual faculties were innate. In other words, people were born with their moral character and intelligence. If you were a thief, it was because you were born with a predisposition to deceitfulness. Gall believed that the brain was composed of many different organs that each controlled different faculties, propensities, and sentiments. The form of the skull represented and reflected the form and development of the brain’s organs.
The 35 “Faculties” in Phrenology
Gall sought support for his ideas by measuring the skulls of people in prisons, hospitals, and asylums, especially those with odd-shaped heads. Based on what he found, Gall developed a system of 27 different “faculties,” each of which he believed corresponded to a particular region of the head.
How a Phrenology Reading Worked
During a skull reading, a phrenologist would carefully feel the individual’s head and make note of bumps and indentations. The phrenologist would compare these findings to that of a phrenology bust in order to determine what the surface of the skull had to say about the individual’s natural aptitudes, character, and tendencies. Scientists discredited phrenology by the mid-1800s, although phrenology readings continued to have moments of popularity during the late 1800s and early 1900s. Today, phrenology is regarded as a pseudoscience along the same lines as palm reading and astrology.
Criticism of Gall’s Phrenology
Gall’s methods lacked scientific rigor and his ideas were also criticized by others during his own time. However, he chose to ignore any evidence that contradicted his ideas. Despite this, phrenology became increasingly popular from the 1800s well into the early 1900s. Having your head examined by a phrenologist was a popular activity during the Victorian era, and it remained fairly popular even after scientific evidence began to mount against Gall’s ideas. Gall’s ideas gained many followers, but also attracted considerable criticism from scientists as well as other groups. The Catholic church believed that his suggestion of a “religion organ” was atheistic, and by 1802, he was forbidden from lecturing in his home. After Gall’s death in 1828, some of his followers continued to develop phrenology, and references of the theory began seeping into mainstream popular culture. Despite phrenology’s brief popularity, it eventually became viewed as a pseudoscience in the same vein as astrology, numerology, and palmistry. During the early- to mid-1800s, the renowned French physician Marie Jean Pierre Flourens, a pioneer in brain studies and cerebral localization, found that the fundamental assumption of phrenology—that the contours of the skull corresponded to the underlying shape of the brain—was wrong. In 1844, the French physiologist Francois Magendie summed up his dismissal: “Phrenology, a pseudo-science of the present day; like astrology, necromancy, and alchemy of former times, pretends to localize in the brain the different kinds of memory. But its efforts are mere assertions, which will not bear examination for an instant.”
Influence of Phrenology
While phrenology has long been identified as a pseudoscience, it did make some contributions to the field of neurology. It helped researchers become more interested in the concept of cortical localization, an idea that suggested that certain mental functions were localized in particular areas of the brain. While Gall and other phrenologists incorrectly believed that bumps on the head corresponded to personality and abilities, they were correct in believing that different mental abilities were associated with different areas of the brain. Modern research methods allow scientists to use sophisticated tools such as MRI and PET scans to learn more about the localization of functions within the brain.
Phrenology and Scientific Racism
While phrenology is often presented today as nothing more than a quirky pseudoscience of the past, it is important to recognize its place as part of the scientific racism of the 19th century. It was frequently used as a way to justify slavery and racial inequality, with proponents of the pseudoscience suggesting that it “proved” the biological superiority of white people. Studies suggesting that differences in arrest rates and IQ scores are due to inherent differences in racial groups and not a reflection of systemic racism are more modern examples of scientific racism.
Summary
Phrenology was a pseudoscience that proposed that the bumps on a person’s head could be used to determine their traits and character. Briefly popular during the Victorian era, phrenology heads or busts were often used to “read” a person’s personality. While brain researchers eventually demonstrated that phrenology was incorrect, it did help inspire research on the localization of brain function, which played an important part in the development of neurology. Phrenology also represented a form of scientific racism, since it was used to support racist beliefs and practices.
